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2025 PACUPrep BCCCP Preparatory Course Urinary Tract and Catheter-related Infections Supportive Care and Management of Complications Associated with Urinary Tract and Catheter-related Infections

Lesson 72, Topic 4

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Supportive Care and Management of Complications Associated with Urinary Tract and Catheter-related Infections

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Supportive Care and Management of Complications in Urosepsis

Supportive Care and Management of Complications in Urosepsis and Catheter-Related Infections

Learning Objective

Recommend appropriate supportive care and monitoring to manage complications associated with urinary tract and catheter-related infections and their treatment.

Key Learning Points:

Identify indications for supportive care (hemodynamic support, mechanical ventilation) in sepsis-associated organ dysfunction.
Propose strategies to prevent ICU-related complications like venous thromboembolism, stress ulceration, and secondary infections.
Describe management of antimicrobial-induced toxicities, including nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and C. difficile infection.
Discuss the role of multidisciplinary goals-of-care conversations when considering invasive or burdensome therapies.

1. Hemodynamic Support in Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction

Early, targeted fluid and vasopressor therapy is crucial to mitigate organ hypoperfusion in urosepsis. The primary goal is to restore tissue perfusion without inducing the harms of fluid overload.

A. Fluid Resuscitation Targets and Monitoring

Initial resuscitation aims to rapidly reverse hypotension and hypoperfusion. An initial bolus of a balanced crystalloid solution (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s) at 20–30 mL/kg of ideal body weight should be administered within the first 3 hours. Subsequent fluid administration must be guided by dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness.

Resuscitation Endpoints: Target a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of ≥65 mm Hg and a lactate clearance of ≥10% every 2 hours.
Dynamic Monitoring: Rely on dynamic indices like stroke volume variation (SVV) or pulse pressure variation (PPV) in mechanically ventilated patients. For all patients, a passive leg-raise test or point-of-care ultrasound (assessing IVC collapsibility and lung B-lines) can predict fluid responsiveness.
Conservative Strategy: Once the patient is stabilized, transition to a conservative fluid strategy to reduce the risk of ventilator-associated complications and acute kidney injury (AKI).

Clinical Pearl: The Four Phases of Fluid Therapy

Think of fluid therapy in four phases: Rescue, Optimization, Stabilization, and De-escalation (ROSD). After the initial rescue bolus, limit further fluids unless clear evidence of fluid responsiveness exists. Reassess fluid balance daily to prevent overload and initiate de-escalation with diuretics or renal replacement therapy once the patient is hemodynamically stable.

B. Vasopressor Selection and Titration

If hypotension persists despite initial fluid resuscitation, vasopressors are required to restore organ perfusion pressure.

Common Vasopressors in Septic Shock
Agent	Typical Dose	Key Considerations
Norepinephrine	Start 0.01–0.03 µg/kg/min	First-line agent. Titrate to MAP ≥ 65 mm Hg. Potent alpha- and modest beta-agonist effects.
Vasopressin	0.03 units/min (fixed dose)	Add-on therapy if norepinephrine dose exceeds ~0.25 µg/kg/min. Acts as a catecholamine-sparing agent.
Dobutamine	2–5 µg/kg/min	Add if evidence of myocardial depression (e.g., low cardiac index on echo) persists despite adequate MAP.

Clinical Pearl: Refractory Shock

In patients with refractory shock requiring high-dose vasopressors, consider low-dose hydrocortisone (e.g., 200 mg/day, often as a 50 mg IV Q6H infusion). This may help reverse shock faster in patients with relative adrenal insufficiency. Avoid dopamine due to its association with increased arrhythmogenicity and mortality.

2. Mechanical Ventilation Considerations

Patients with severe sepsis may develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) requiring mechanical ventilation. The goal is to apply lung-protective ventilation strategies and facilitate liberation as soon as possible.

A. Lung-Protective Strategies

The cornerstone of managing ARDS is minimizing ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI).

Low Tidal Volume: Set tidal volume to 6 mL/kg of predicted body weight.
Pressure Limitation: Keep plateau pressure (Pplat) ≤ 30 cm H₂O and driving pressure (ΔP = Pplat − PEEP) < 15 cm H₂O.
PEEP Titration: Individualize positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to maintain alveolar recruitment without causing overdistension and hemodynamic compromise.
Advanced Therapies: For severe ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂ < 150 mm Hg), consider prone positioning and recruitment maneuvers.

Clinical Pearl: Driving Pressure as a Key Metric

Driving pressure (ΔP) is a powerful predictor of mortality in ARDS. It represents the “strain” on the lung for a given tidal volume. If ΔP is elevated (>15 cm H₂O), it signals that the lung is stiff and at high risk. Interventions should focus on reducing ΔP, which may involve lowering the tidal volume further or adjusting PEEP.

B. Weaning Protocols and Sedation Management

A coordinated approach to sedation and weaning is essential to shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation.

Light Sedation: Target a light level of sedation (Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale [RASS] –2 to 0) using daily sedation interruptions.
Spontaneous Breathing Trials (SBT): Perform a daily SBT (lasting 30–120 minutes) when the patient meets readiness criteria (e.g., PaO₂/FiO₂ > 150 mm Hg, PEEP ≤ 8 cm H₂O, hemodynamic stability).
Analgesia-First Sedation: Prioritize pain control with opioids before adding sedatives. Dexmedetomidine or propofol are preferred sedatives as they allow for more arousable sedation.

Clinical Pearl: The ABCDEF Bundle

Pairing a daily spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) with early mobilization and family engagement is a core component of the ABCDEF bundle (Assess, prevent, and manage pain; Both spontaneous awakening and breathing trials; Choice of analgesia and sedation; Delirium assessment; Early mobility; Family engagement). This bundle approach has been shown to shorten ventilation duration and improve long-term outcomes.

3. Prevention of ICU-Related Complications

Prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism (VTE), stress ulcers, and secondary infections is a standard of care that reduces morbidity in critically ill patients with urosepsis.

Prophylaxis Strategies for ICU Complications
Complication	Primary Prophylaxis	Key Considerations
Venous Thromboembolism (VTE)	Enoxaparin 40 mg SC daily or UFH 5,000 units SC Q8H.	Dose-adjust enoxaparin for renal dysfunction (e.g., 30 mg daily for CrCl < 30 mL/min). Use mechanical prophylaxis if anticoagulation is contraindicated.
Stress-Related Mucosal Bleeding	PPI (e.g., pantoprazole 40 mg IV daily) or H₂RA (e.g., famotidine 20 mg IV Q12H).	Indicated for high-risk patients (mechanical ventilation >48h, coagulopathy). Discontinue when risk factors resolve.
Secondary Infections	Chlorhexidine 0.12% oral care; daily review and removal of invasive devices (catheters, lines).	The most effective prevention is minimizing device duration. Oral care reduces VAP risk.

Clinical Pearl: Daily Device Review

Incorporating a “device review” into daily multidisciplinary rounds is arguably the single most effective intervention to prevent catheter-associated infections. Explicitly asking “Does this patient still need this central line? This urinary catheter?” creates a forcing function for timely removal and disrupts the formation of biofilms.

4. Management of Antimicrobial-Induced Toxicities

Vigilant monitoring of drug levels and organ function is essential to prevent and mitigate common antimicrobial-induced toxicities like nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and Clostridioides difficile infection.

Management of Common Antimicrobial Toxicities
Toxicity	Causative Agents	Monitoring & Management
Nephrotoxicity	Vancomycin, Aminoglycosides (e.g., gentamicin), Piperacillin-tazobactam	Use AUC-guided dosing for vancomycin. Use extended-interval dosing for aminoglycosides. Monitor SCr daily and avoid concurrent nephrotoxins.
Hepatotoxicity	Azole antifungals (e.g., fluconazole), Fluoroquinolones, Macrolides	Obtain baseline LFTs and monitor twice weekly for long courses. Consider dose adjustments or alternative agents in patients with underlying liver disease.
C. difficile Infection	Broad-spectrum agents (e.g., fluoroquinolones, clindamycin, 3rd-gen cephalosporins)	Practice antimicrobial stewardship: de-escalate or stop antibiotics based on culture data. Treat with oral vancomycin or fidaxomicin.

Clinical Pearl: AUC-Guided Vancomycin Dosing

Modern guidelines strongly advocate for AUC/MIC-guided vancomycin dosing (target 400–600 mg·h/L) over traditional trough-based monitoring. Bayesian dosing software, often integrated into the electronic health record, makes this approach feasible. This strategy has been shown to significantly reduce the incidence of vancomycin-induced nephrotoxicity while maintaining therapeutic efficacy.

5. Multidisciplinary Goals of Care

Early, structured, and repeated goals-of-care discussions are essential to align medical treatments with patient values, especially in prolonged or severe critical illness. This process helps avoid nonbeneficial or unwanted burdensome interventions.

A. Goals Discussion Framework

A structured approach can facilitate these sensitive conversations. The SPIKES model is a widely used framework:

Figure 1: The SPIKES Model. A six-step protocol for delivering difficult news and conducting goals-of-care conversations in a patient-centered manner.

B. Palliative Considerations and Burden Assessment

Palliative care should be considered for any patient with a serious illness, not just at the end of life. Indications for a formal palliative care consultation include refractory shock, prolonged mechanical ventilation, or multi-organ failure with a poor prognosis. The entire clinical team, including pharmacists, nurses, and social workers, plays a role in assessing the burden of treatment and ensuring care aligns with documented patient preferences and advance care plans.

Clinical Pearl: The Pharmacist’s Role in Palliative Care

Clinical pharmacists can play a leading role during family meetings and palliative care discussions. They are uniquely positioned to highlight the burden of therapy by explaining complex medication regimens, potential side effects, and monitoring requirements. They can also lead deprescribing initiatives to eliminate non-essential medications and optimize symptom control (e.g., pain, agitation, secretions), thereby improving patient comfort and reducing caregiver burden.

References

Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International Guidelines for Management of Sepsis and Septic Shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021;49(11):e1063–e1143.
Chenoweth C, Saint S. Preventing catheter-associated urinary tract infections in the ICU. Crit Care Clin. 2013;29(1):19–32.
Kress JP, et al. Prevention and Management of Stress-Related Mucosal Bleeding in Critically Ill Adults: An Official American Society of Health-System Pharmacists/Society of Critical Care Medicine Guideline. Crit Care Med. 2024.
Saeed M. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in ICU patients. Cleve Clin J Med. 2022;89(7):363–368.
Hooton TM, et al. Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection in Adults: 2024 International Clinical Practice Guidelines from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. JAMA Network Open. 2024;7(11):e2444495.
CDC. Hospital Sepsis Program Core Elements. 2023.
Infectious Diseases Society of America. New Recommendations to Improve Sepsis Outcomes. 2023.

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