1. De-escalation of Hemodynamic Support

Systematic weaning of inotropes and vasopressors once perfusion and end-organ function recover is crucial to prevent rebound hypotension and arrhythmias.

A. Assessment Criteria for Weaning Readiness

• Vital signs: Stable MAP (typically >65-70 mmHg without pressors), target heart rate achieved (e.g., <100 bpm).
• Perfusion markers: Capillary refill time ≤ 2 seconds, warm extremities, normalizing mentation.
• Laboratory values: Serum lactate < 2 mmol/L or consistently decreasing, creatinine stable or improving, stable liver function tests.
• Invasive hemodynamic data (if available): Cardiac index > 2.2 L/min/m², Pulmonary Artery Wedge Pressure (PAWP) 15–18 mm Hg, Central Venous Pressure (CVP) 8-12 mmHg.

B. Inotrope Weaning Protocol

Target drugs for weaning include dobutamine and milrinone.

C. Vasopressor Weaning Protocol

Typically, norepinephrine is weaned first, followed by vasopressin if used.

• Norepinephrine Tapering: Decrease infusion rate by 0.02–0.05 mcg/kg/min every 2–4 hours. Consider a trial off norepinephrine when the dose is very low (e.g., <0.05 mcg/kg/min) and MAP remains > 65 mm Hg for 2–4 hours.
• Vasopressin Tapering: Once norepinephrine is discontinued or at a very low dose, vasopressin (if used) can be tapered, e.g., by 0.01 units/min every 1-2 hours, or stopped.

2. Conversion from IV to Enteral Therapies

Transitioning to oral heart failure medications is a key step towards discharge readiness. It requires verification of gastrointestinal function and careful planning to avoid dose gaps or overlaps.

A. General Principles for Conversion

• Assess GI tolerance: Ensure presence of bowel sounds and minimal gastric residual volumes if on tube feeds. Patient should be able to tolerate oral intake without significant nausea or vomiting.
• Avoid duplicate therapy: Clearly discontinue IV medication when oral equivalent is started. Ensure no overlap that could lead to toxicity.
• Check formulation: Be aware of differences between immediate-release and extended-release oral formulations and dose accordingly.

B. Specific Conversions

C. Enteral Access Considerations (for tube administration)

• Tube size and flush volume: Use appropriate size feeding tube and adequate flush volumes (e.g., 15-30 mL water before and after each medication) to prevent clogging.
• Drug–nutrient interactions: Be mindful of interactions with enteral feeding formulas (e.g., phenytoin, warfarin may have reduced absorption). Hold feeds if necessary.
• Crushing constraints: Avoid crushing extended-release (ER/XR/SR), enteric-coated (EC), or hazardous drug tablets. Consult pharmacy for alternative formulations (e.g., liquid, immediate-release).

3. Pharmacotherapy Optimization and Sequential Initiation of GDMT

Early, rapid sequential initiation of guideline-directed medical therapy (GDMT) for heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) within 4 weeks of stabilization maximizes long-term benefits. This typically includes an Angiotensin Receptor-Neprilysin Inhibitor (ARNI), a Beta-Blocker, a Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonist (MRA), and an SGLT2 inhibitor.

A. RAAS Modulation: ACE Inhibitor to ARNI Conversion

• Washout period: A 36-hour washout period is required when switching from an ACE inhibitor to an ARNI (sacubitril/valsartan) to reduce angioedema risk. No washout is needed if switching from an ARB.
• Dosing:
  • ARNI-naïve or prior low-dose ACEi/ARB: Start sacubitril/valsartan 24/26 mg or 49/51 mg twice daily.
  • Prior moderate-high dose ACEi/ARB: Start sacubitril/valsartan 49/51 mg twice daily.
  • Titrate by doubling the dose every 2–4 weeks as tolerated, to a target of 97/103 mg twice daily.
• Monitoring: Blood pressure, serum potassium, renal function (eGFR/creatinine), and signs of angioedema.

B. Beta-Blocker Initiation

• Criteria for initiation: Patient should be euvolemic (no significant fluid overload or depletion) and off IV inotropes for at least 24–48 hours.
• Agents and starting doses:
  • Carvedilol: 3.125 mg twice daily.
  • Metoprolol succinate (extended-release): 12.5 mg or 25 mg once daily.
  • Bisoprolol: 1.25 mg or 2.5 mg once daily.
• Titration: Double the dose every 2 weeks as tolerated, aiming for target doses or maximally tolerated doses.
• Monitoring: Heart rate (target typically 50–60 bpm, or as tolerated), blood pressure, signs of worsening congestion, fatigue, or bradycardia.

C. Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists (MRAs)

• Indication: Typically for patients with LVEF ≤ 35-40% and NYHA class II-IV symptoms, or post-MI with LVEF ≤ 40% and HF symptoms or diabetes.
• Agents and doses:
  • Spironolactone: Start 12.5–25 mg once daily.
  • Eplerenone: Start 25 mg once daily (preferred if gynecomastia is a concern with spironolactone).
• Monitoring: Serum potassium and creatinine at baseline, within 1 week, at 4 weeks, monthly for 3 months, then every 3-6 months.
• Contraindications/Cautions: Baseline potassium > 5.0 mmol/L, eGFR < 30 mL/min/1.73m². Use with caution with other drugs that increase potassium.

D. SGLT2 Inhibitors

• Agents and dose:
  • Dapagliflozin: 10 mg once daily.
  • Empagliflozin: 10 mg once daily.
• Titration: No up-titration is needed for heart failure benefits.
• Blood pressure effect: Minimal effect on blood pressure for most patients.
• Monitoring: Renal function (eGFR), volume status. Counsel on risk of genitourinary infections and euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis (rare). Be initiated down to eGFR of 20-25 mL/min/1.73m² depending on the agent.

E. Statins

• Indication: Primarily for patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy or other atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) indications.
• Agents and doses: High-intensity statin therapy is generally recommended.
  • Atorvastatin: 40–80 mg once daily.
  • Rosuvastatin: 20–40 mg once daily.
• Monitoring: Baseline LFTs, then as clinically indicated. CK if muscle symptoms (myalgias, weakness) arise.

F. Anticoagulation for Mechanical Devices (if applicable during recovery)

Specific anticoagulation targets are crucial for patients on temporary mechanical circulatory support (tMCS) during their recovery phase before de-escalation.

4. Prevention and Mitigation of Post-ICU Syndrome (PICS)

Implementing strategies like the ABCDEF bundle and promoting early mobilization can reduce the significant cognitive, physical, and psychological sequelae that often follow critical illness (Post-ICU Syndrome).

A. Risk Factor Identification for PICS

• Advanced age (> 65 years)
• Pre-existing cognitive impairment (e.g., dementia)
• Prolonged ICU stay (e.g., > 7 days)
• Duration and depth of sedation
• Number of delirium episodes
• Immobility
• Sepsis or severe systemic inflammation
• Hypoxemia or metabolic derangements

B. The ABCDEF Bundle Implementation

The ABCDEF bundle is a set of evidence-based practices to improve ICU patient outcomes and reduce PICS.

• A: Assess, Prevent, and Manage Pain: Regular pain assessment using validated scales; multimodal analgesia to minimize opioids.
• B: Both Spontaneous Awakening Trials (SATs) and Spontaneous Breathing Trials (SBTs): Daily interruption of sedation to assess readiness for extubation.
• C: Choice of Analgesia and Sedation: Use light sedation targets; prefer non-benzodiazepine sedatives when possible.
• D: Delirium – Assess, Prevent, and Manage: Regular delirium screening (e.g., CAM-ICU); non-pharmacologic interventions (reorientation, sleep hygiene, early mobility).
• E: Early Mobility and Exercise: Progressive mobilization as soon as feasible.
• F: Family Engagement and Empowerment: Involve family in care, provide education, and support their presence.

C. Early Mobilization and Rehabilitation

• Initiate Physical Therapy (PT) and Occupational Therapy (OT) consultation, ideally within 24-48 hours of ICU admission or once hemodynamic stability is achieved.
• Progress activities as tolerated:
  • Passive range of motion (PROM)
  • Active range of motion (AROM)
  • Sitting at edge of bed, transferring to chair
  • Standing, ambulation with assistance
• Address barriers to mobility such as lines, drains, and ventilator support with a multidisciplinary team approach.

5. Medication Reconciliation and Discharge Counseling

A structured medication reconciliation process and comprehensive, patient-centered discharge education are vital to ensure adherence to GDMT, prevent medication errors, and reduce the risk of rehospitalization.

A. Medication Reconciliation Principles

• Verify home regimen: Obtain the best possible medication history (BPMH) from patient, family, pharmacy records.
• Review inpatient changes: Identify all medications started, stopped, or changed during hospitalization and the rationale.
• Adjust for current status: Ensure doses are appropriate for current renal function, hepatic function, and hemodynamic status.
• Discontinue unnecessary agents: Stop medications no longer indicated (e.g., temporary IV therapies, stress ulcer prophylaxis if not needed long-term).
• Create clear discharge list: Provide the patient with a clear, concise list of all discharge medications, including name, dose, route, frequency, and indication.

B. Discharge Planning Checklist

• Confirm stable laboratory values and hemodynamics for at least 24 hours prior to discharge.
• Ensure patient has access to all prescribed medications (e.g., affordability, pharmacy access).
• Arrange for any necessary durable medical equipment (DME) (e.g., walker, home oxygen).
• Identify and coordinate support services (e.g., home health, cardiac rehabilitation).
• Provide written discharge summary to patient and primary care physician.

C. Patient Education and Addressing Barriers

• Heart failure education:
  • Teach “red flag” symptoms of worsening HF (e.g., rapid weight gain, increased shortness of breath, swelling, orthopnea) and when to seek medical attention.
  • Reinforce dietary restrictions (e.g., sodium, fluid limits if applicable).
  • Emphasize the importance of medication adherence and provide tools (e.g., pillbox, medication reminder apps).
  • Discuss daily weight monitoring.
• Address socioeconomic barriers:
  • Assess medication affordability and connect with social work or pharmacy assistance programs if needed.
  • Evaluate transportation needs for follow-up appointments.
  • Assess health literacy and provide education in an understandable format (e.g., teach-back method, plain language materials).

6. Recognition and Initial Management of Mechanical Complications of Acute Myocardial Infarction

In patients recovering from acute myocardial infarction (MI) who develop decompensated heart failure or cardiogenic shock, early detection and stabilization of mechanical complications such as ventricular free wall rupture, ventricular septal defect (VSD), and papillary muscle rupture are critical for survival.

A. Ventricular Free Wall Rupture

• Clinical signs: Sudden, profound hypotension or pulseless electrical activity (PEA). Signs of cardiac tamponade: elevated jugular venous pressure (JVP), muffled heart sounds, pulsus paradoxus.
• Initial management:
  • Emergent pericardiocentesis if tamponade is present (may be temporarily life-saving).
  • Immediate activation of the surgical team.
  • Volume resuscitation and vasopressor support.
  • Consider VA-ECMO as a bridge to definitive surgical repair if available and feasible.

B. Ventricular Septal Rupture (VSD)

• Clinical signs: Development of a new, loud, harsh holosystolic murmur, typically best heard at the left sternal border. Rapid onset of biventricular failure, pulmonary congestion, and cardiogenic shock. Oxygen step-up on right heart catheterization.
• Initial management:
  • Afterload reduction (e.g., sodium nitroprusside if blood pressure allows) to reduce left-to-right shunting.
  • Inotropic support.
  • Intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) or other temporary MCS (e.g., Impella) for hemodynamic stabilization.
  • Urgent surgical consultation for VSD repair. Percutaneous closure may be an option in select cases.

C. Papillary Muscle Rupture (leading to Acute Severe Mitral Regurgitation)

• Clinical signs: Sudden onset of severe dyspnea, pulmonary edema, and cardiogenic shock. New systolic murmur of mitral regurgitation (may be soft or absent if forward flow is very low).
• Initial management:
  • Aggressive afterload reduction with IV vasodilators (e.g., nitroprusside, nitroglycerin) to promote forward flow and reduce regurgitant volume, if blood pressure tolerates.
  • Inotropic support if hypotensive.
  • IABP or other temporary MCS to stabilize.
  • Early surgical consultation for mitral valve repair or replacement.