1. Pharmacotherapy Framework in DILI

A structured escalation plan is critical to limit ongoing hepatocellular injury, support hepatic regeneration, and prevent life-threatening complications. The approach must be dynamic and responsive to the patient’s clinical trajectory.

Therapeutic Goals & Decision Drivers

• Therapeutic Goals: The primary objectives are to limit further injury, promote hepatic repair, and prevent secondary complications like coagulopathy and encephalopathy.
• Escalation Schema: Therapy progresses from general supportive care to targeted antidotes or cytoprotectants, adjunctive agents for specific phenotypes, and finally, timely evaluation for liver transplantation.
• Decision Drivers: Key factors guiding therapy include the biochemical pattern of injury (e.g., R-value), severity scores (MELD, Hy’s Law), and the presence of immune-mediated features.
• Coordination: Interdisciplinary collaboration between critical care, hepatology, and pharmacy is essential to manage altered pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD) and complex delivery device needs.

2. N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)

NAC is a cornerstone therapy that replenishes glutathione stores, acts as an antioxidant, and may improve hepatic microcirculation. Its benefit is most established in acetaminophen (APAP) toxicity but extends to select cases of non-APAP acute liver failure (ALF).

Mechanism and Indications

• Mechanism: Acts as a glutathione precursor, directly scavenges reactive oxygen species, and improves microcirculatory blood flow through nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation.
• Indications:
  • Acetaminophen overdose, especially within 8–10 hours of ingestion.
  • Early non-APAP acute liver failure (Grade I–II encephalopathy).
  • As an adjunct in anti-tuberculosis DILI, where it may shorten hospital stay.

Standard IV Dosing (Three-Phase Protocol)

Monitoring and Considerations

• Efficacy Monitoring: Track ALT, AST, bilirubin, and INR every 12–24 hours to assess response.
• Safety Monitoring: Watch for non-IgE-mediated anaphylactoid reactions (e.g., rash, flushing, bronchospasm), particularly during the loading dose. Slowing the infusion rate can mitigate this risk.
• PK/PD: In critical illness, an expanded volume of distribution and reduced clearance may prolong the drug’s half-life.
• Advantages: Well-established efficacy in APAP toxicity, low cost, and a generally favorable safety profile.
• Disadvantages: Limited proven survival benefit outside of APAP and early-stage non-APAP ALF. Infusion reactions occur in approximately 9% of non-APAP DILI patients.

3. Ursodeoxycholic Acid (UDCA)

UDCA is a hydrophilic bile acid used off-label primarily for symptomatic relief in cholestatic patterns of DILI. Its main role is to enhance bile flow and alleviate pruritus.

• Mechanism: Promotes choleresis (bile flow), helps stabilize hepatocyte membranes against toxic bile acids, and may have cytoprotective and immunomodulatory effects.
• Indication: Symptomatic relief of cholestatic DILI, specifically for managing pruritus and improving biochemical markers of cholestasis (ALP, GGT).
• Dosing: The typical oral dose is 13–15 mg/kg/day, administered in divided doses (e.g., 750–1500 mg/day for an average adult).
• Monitoring: Assess ALP, GGT, and total bilirubin weekly until stable, then monthly. Monitor for GI side effects, primarily diarrhea.
• Limitations: This is an off-label use, and there is a lack of large-scale RCTs demonstrating an impact on long-term outcomes like survival or liver histology.

4. Corticosteroids

Glucocorticoids are not used for typical DILI but are reserved for specific phenotypes characterized by significant immune system activation, such as DRESS syndrome, immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced hepatitis, and drug-induced autoimmune hepatitis (AIH)-like presentations.

Mechanism and Indications

• Mechanism: Exert potent anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing T-cell activation, inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and reducing immune-mediated hepatocyte injury.
• Indications:
  • Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms (DRESS) syndrome.
  • Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI)-induced hepatitis.
  • DILI presentations with strong autoimmune features (e.g., high autoantibody titers).

Common Regimens

Monitoring and Pitfalls

• Monitoring: Check blood glucose frequently and monitor for signs of infection every 2–3 days. For therapy lasting over 4 weeks, consider bone density monitoring.
• Warnings: Avoid initiating steroids in patients with uncontrolled active infections. Be aware of increased risks of GI bleeding, hyperglycemia, and impaired wound healing.

5. Supportive Pharmacotherapy

Supportive care focuses on managing complications like coagulopathy, avoiding additional hepatotoxic insults, and optimizing the patient’s overall physiologic state to promote recovery.

• Coagulopathy: Administer Vitamin K 10 mg IV daily for 3 days to correct deficiency-related INR prolongation. Use fresh frozen plasma (FFP) or prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) for active bleeding or prior to invasive procedures.
• Medication Review: Conduct a thorough review of all concurrent medications. Discontinue non-essential drugs and adjust doses of hepatically metabolized agents as needed.

6. PK/PD and Dosing Adjustments

Severe liver and kidney dysfunction fundamentally alters drug metabolism and clearance, necessitating tailored dosing strategies to prevent toxicity and ensure efficacy.

• Hepatic Impairment: Reduced Phase I and Phase II metabolism can dramatically increase the exposure of certain drugs. Decrease doses of high-extraction-ratio drugs (e.g., opioids, benzodiazepines, beta-blockers) to avoid accumulation.
• Renal Replacement Therapy: Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) can significantly clear low-molecular-weight, water-soluble drugs like NAC. Consider supplemental dosing or increased infusion rates to maintain therapeutic concentrations.

7. Route of Administration and Delivery Devices

The choice of administration route and delivery device must ensure reliable drug delivery, especially in patients with hemodynamic instability or gastrointestinal dysfunction.

• Route Selection: The intravenous (IV) route is preferred for critically ill patients with shock or GI dysmotility. Enteral administration of UDCA and corticosteroids is feasible once GI tolerance is established.
• Device Requirements: NAC requires a dedicated IV line and a programmable infusion pump for precise rate control to minimize infusion reactions.
• Enteral Access: For enteral formulations, verify feeding tube compatibility to prevent drug-device interactions. Always flush lines thoroughly before and after administration to prevent occlusion.

8. Monitoring and Pharmacoeconomics

Ongoing assessment of efficacy, safety, and cost is essential to guide therapy continuation, de-escalation, or escalation to more advanced interventions like transplant.

Key Markers and Decision Points

• Efficacy Markers: Monitor daily LFTs (ALT, AST, ALP), bilirubin, INR, and albumin. Assess encephalopathy grade daily.
• Safety Markers: Watch for anaphylactoid reactions (NAC), hyperglycemia and infection (corticosteroids), and GI intolerance (UDCA).
• Cost vs. Benefit:
  • NAC: Low acquisition cost; monitoring is minimal unless reactions occur.
  • UDCA: Moderate cost with unproven survival benefit, making its value questionable if no symptomatic improvement.
  • Corticosteroids: Low drug cost but associated with high downstream costs from monitoring and managing complications.
• Decision Points:
  • Discontinue NAC if there is no improvement in encephalopathy by 72 hours in non-APAP ALF.
  • Initiate steroids only after excluding active infection and confirming an immune DILI phenotype.
  • Taper or stop UDCA if symptomatic relief is not evident within 2 weeks.