1. Pharmacotherapeutic Agents

Select agents that provide both glucocorticoid (GC) and mineralocorticoid (MC) effects to restore hemodynamic stability and modulate inflammation when endogenous cortisol is insufficient.

A. Hydrocortisone

• Mechanism: Glucocorticoid receptor agonism suppresses inflammatory pathways like NF-κB and AP-1. Mineralocorticoid receptor agonism enhances vascular tone and sensitivity to catecholamines.
• Indications: First-line agent for adrenal crisis and vasopressor-refractory septic shock.
• Pharmacokinetics: Metabolized in the liver via 11β-HSD and CYP3A4. Critical illness increases its volume of distribution, potentially altering clearance.
• Dosing: The standard stress-dose is 200 mg per 24 hours, administered as either 50 mg IV every 6 hours or as a continuous infusion.

B. Fludrocortisone

• Mechanism: A potent mineralocorticoid agonist (approximately 200 times the activity of aldosterone) that promotes sodium retention and enhances vascular responsiveness to vasopressors.
• Indications: Used as an adjunct to hydrocortisone for patients with persistent vasopressor dependence, particularly in confirmed primary adrenal insufficiency or refractory shock states where mineralocorticoid deficiency is suspected.
• Dosing: 50 µg orally once daily. Monitor blood pressure, serum sodium, and potassium closely.

C. Alternative Agents

Prednisolone and dexamethasone are generally reserved for situations where hydrocortisone is unavailable. Their primary limitation is a lack of significant mineralocorticoid activity.

• Equivalence: 20 mg of hydrocortisone is approximately equivalent to 5 mg of prednisolone or 0.75 mg of dexamethasone.
• Considerations: These agents have longer half-lives, which increases the risk of prolonged HPA-axis suppression upon discontinuation.

2. Dosing Strategies and Titration

Early initiation of hydrocortisone in appropriately selected patients can hasten shock reversal and reduce the duration of vasopressor therapy. Dosing should be guided by hemodynamic response and adjusted for organ dysfunction.

A. Standard Regimen and Timing

• Standard Dose: Hydrocortisone 200 mg/day, given as 50 mg IV every 6 hours or as a continuous infusion (e.g., ~8 mg/hr).
• Initiation Criteria: Consider starting therapy within 24 hours for patients with refractory shock, often defined as requiring norepinephrine ≥0.25–0.3 µg/kg/min for more than 4-6 hours despite adequate fluid resuscitation and source control.

B. Dose Modifications

• Hepatic Impairment: No routine dose reduction is necessary. However, in cases of severe liver failure, clearance may be markedly reduced, warranting consideration of an extended dosing interval or lower total daily dose.
• Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT): No dose adjustment is required for hydrocortisone, as it is not significantly cleared by dialysis. Monitor electrolytes closely, as corticosteroids can exacerbate hypokalemia and hypophosphatemia.

3. Administration and Delivery Considerations

The method of delivery impacts cortisol exposure, metabolic side effects, and operational workflow. The choice should be based on patient stability, institutional resources, and nursing/pharmacy support.

A. Intermittent Bolus vs. Continuous Infusion

• Intermittent Bolus: Simple to administer and requires no dedicated infusion pump. However, the resulting peaks and troughs in cortisol levels may exacerbate hyperglycemia.
• Continuous Infusion: Provides stable plasma concentrations, potentially reducing metabolic swings. This method requires a dedicated infusion pump and additional pharmacy support for preparation.

B. Transition to Oral Therapy

A patient can be transitioned from IV to oral corticosteroids once they are hemodynamically stable and off vasopressors. It is crucial to confirm adequate gastrointestinal perfusion and motility before making the switch to ensure reliable absorption.

4. Monitoring and Safety

Close monitoring for both efficacy and adverse effects is essential to guide therapy duration and prevent complications.

A. Efficacy Endpoints

• Hemodynamics: The primary goal is achieving a sustained Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) ≥65 mm Hg, allowing for a reduction in vasopressor requirements.
• Perfusion Markers: Monitor for trends in lactate clearance and improvement in urine output as signs of restored tissue perfusion.

B. Safety Monitoring

• Glucose: Check blood glucose every 4–6 hours. Institute a standardized insulin protocol to manage hyperglycemia, a common side effect.
• Electrolytes: Monitor sodium, potassium, magnesium, and phosphate daily.
• Infection Surveillance: Be vigilant for signs of new or worsening infections, as corticosteroids can mask fever and impair immune response.

C. Contraindications and Warnings

• Relative Contraindications: Active gastrointestinal bleeding, uncontrolled fungal infections, or a poorly controlled septic focus.
• Use with Caution: Pre-existing psychosis, severe osteoporosis, or poorly controlled diabetes mellitus.

5. Cost-Effectiveness and Clinical Decision Points

Effective steroid stewardship requires balancing the clinical benefits of specific strategies against resource utilization and applying evidence from key clinical trials to practice.

A. Practice Pearls and Pitfalls

• Initiate Promptly: Start hydrocortisone early after initial fluid resuscitation and vasopressor initiation to maximize the chance of rapid shock reversal.
• Taper Appropriately: Once vasopressors are weaned, taper hydrocortisone over 3–5 days (e.g., reduce to 100 mg/day, then 50 mg/day) before discontinuation to prevent rebound adrenal insufficiency.
• Standardize Protocols: Implement institutional protocols for dosing, administration, and monitoring to minimize errors and ensure consistent care.