I. Escalating Pharmacotherapy Framework

A protocolized approach—Blood Pressure (BP) control → anticoagulant reversal → hemostatics → Intracranial Pressure (ICP) management → sedation—reduces secondary injury and guides escalation.

Goals:

• Limit ongoing bleeding and hematoma expansion.
• Maintain adequate cerebral perfusion pressure.
• Stabilize overall patient physiology to prevent secondary brain injury.

Evidence Tiers supporting this framework include:

• INTERACT2 (Intensive Blood Pressure Reduction in Acute Cerebral Haemorrhage Trial 2)
• ATACH-II (Antihypertensive Treatment of Acute Cerebral Hemorrhage II)
• FAST (Factor Seven for Acute Haemorrhagic Stroke Trial)
• AHA/ASA (American Heart Association/American Stroke Association) Guidelines

II. Acute Blood Pressure Control

A. Evidence & Targets

• INTERACT2: Showed that targeting a Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP) of <140 mm Hg within 1 hour was associated with better functional outcomes compared to a target of <180 mm Hg.
• ATACH-II: Found no additional benefit in functional outcome for intensive SBP reduction to 110-139 mm Hg compared to 140-179 mm Hg, and a higher rate of renal adverse events in the intensive-treatment group if SBP fell below 130 mm Hg.
• Guideline Target: Current guidelines generally recommend targeting an SBP of 130–140 mm Hg. It is crucial to avoid SBP <130 mm Hg in the acute phase to prevent cerebral hypoperfusion.

B. Nicardipine

• Mechanism: L-type calcium channel blocker, leading to arterial vasodilation.
• Dosing: Start 5 mg/h IV infusion; titrate by increasing 2.5 mg/h every 5–15 minutes to a maximum of 15 mg/h, until target SBP is achieved.
• Monitoring: Blood pressure every 5 minutes during titration, then every 15-30 minutes. Monitor heart rate and neurologic exam frequently.
• Pharmacokinetics/Pharmacodynamics (PK/PD): Onset of action within 5–10 minutes; half-life approximately 2–4 hours; primarily metabolized by the liver.

C. Labetalol

• Mechanism: Combined alpha₁ and non-selective beta₁/beta₂ adrenergic blockade, leading to decreased heart rate and systemic vascular resistance.
• Dosing: 10–20 mg IV bolus over 1-2 minutes, may repeat or double every 10 minutes (max cumulative dose 300 mg); or initiate IV infusion at 0.5–2 mg/min.
• Monitoring: Blood pressure and heart rate closely, especially after boluses. Monitor for signs of bronchospasm in susceptible individuals.
• PK/PD: Onset of action within 2–5 minutes; half-life approximately 5–8 hours; undergoes hepatic clearance.

III. Anticoagulant Reversal

A. Idarucizumab (for Dabigatran Reversal)

• Mechanism: A humanized monoclonal antibody fragment (Fab) that binds specifically to dabigatran and its acylglucuronide metabolites with higher affinity than dabigatran’s affinity for thrombin, neutralizing its anticoagulant effect immediately.
• Dosing: 5 grams administered IV, given as two separate 2.5 g boluses no more than 15 minutes apart (each 2.5 g vial reconstituted and given over 5–10 minutes).
• Monitoring: Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), thrombin time (TT), or ecarin clotting time (ECT) can assess dabigatran activity, though reversal is typically rapid. Primarily monitor for clinical signs of bleed control.
• PK/PD: Onset of action is within minutes. The half-life of idarucizumab is approximately 10 hours in patients with normal renal function. It remains effective even in patients with renal impairment, though dabigatran clearance itself is prolonged in such cases.

B. Factor Xa Inhibitor Reversal (e.g., Rivaroxaban, Apixaban, Edoxaban)

Andexanet Alfa:

• Mechanism: A recombinant modified human factor Xa decoy protein that binds and sequesters factor Xa inhibitors.
• Dosing: Administered as an IV bolus followed by a 2-hour infusion. Dosing is either low-dose or high-dose regimen based on the specific factor Xa inhibitor, dose, and time since last intake.
  • Example (Low dose for apixaban ≤5 mg taken <8 hours prior, or rivaroxaban ≤10 mg taken <8 hours prior): 400 mg IV bolus at 30 mg/min, followed by 4 mg/min IV infusion for 120 minutes.
  • Example (High dose for apixaban >5 mg or unknown dose/time, or rivaroxaban >10 mg or unknown dose/time): 800 mg IV bolus at 30 mg/min, followed by 8 mg/min IV infusion for 120 minutes.

4-Factor Prothrombin Complex Concentrate (PCC) – Off-label use:

• Mechanism: Contains vitamin K-dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X) and proteins C and S.
• Dosing: Typically 25–50 Units/kg IV as a single dose. Some protocols use a fixed dose (e.g., 2000 Units).

C. Warfarin Reversal

• Vitamin K: 5–10 mg IV administered slowly (e.g., over 20-30 minutes) to avoid anaphylactoid reactions.
• 4-Factor Prothrombin Complex Concentrate (PCC): Dosed based on INR and patient weight, typically 25–50 Units/kg. (e.g., INR 2-3.9: 25 U/kg; INR 4-6: 35 U/kg; INR >6: 50 U/kg; max dose often 5000 U).
• Monitoring: International Normalized Ratio (INR) every 30–60 minutes initially, then every 4-6 hours until INR is <1.4 (or desired target).

IV. Hemostatic Agents

Recombinant Activated Factor VII (rFVIIa)

• Mechanism: At pharmacological doses, rFVIIa activates Factor X directly on the surface of activated platelets at the site of injury, leading to a “thrombin burst” and formation of a stable fibrin clot.
• Dosing: Varied in studies, commonly 20–90 µg/kg IV bolus. Original FAST trial used 20, 80, or 160 µg/kg. Lower doses (e.g., 40 µg/kg) sometimes used off-label.
• Evidence: The FAST trial demonstrated that rFVIIa reduced hematoma growth in ICH but did not improve functional outcomes or reduce mortality. Furthermore, it was associated with an increased risk of arterial thromboembolic events.
• Guideline Stance: Due to the lack of proven clinical benefit on outcomes and the increased risk of thrombosis, current guidelines generally restrict the use of rFVIIa to clinical trials or as a salvage therapy in very specific, refractory bleeding situations, and typically not for routine ICH management.

V. Cerebral Edema Management

A. Mannitol

• Mechanism: An osmotic diuretic that increases serum osmolality, drawing water from brain tissue into the intravascular space, thereby reducing brain volume and ICP. It also has rheological effects, reducing blood viscosity and improving cerebral blood flow.
• Dosing: 0.25–1 g/kg IV bolus administered over 10-30 minutes, may be repeated every 4–6 hours as needed, guided by ICP and clinical response.
• Monitoring: Serum osmolality (target <320 mOsm/kg to avoid renal failure and other complications), serum electrolytes (especially sodium and potassium), renal function (BUN, creatinine), fluid balance, and ICP.

B. Hypertonic Saline (HTS)

• Mechanism: Increases serum sodium and osmolality, creating an osmotic gradient that draws water out of brain cells and reduces cerebral edema. May also have anti-inflammatory and endothelial protective effects.
• Dosing:
  • 3% Saline: 250–500 mL bolus over 10-30 minutes for acute ICP elevation, or continuous infusion (e.g., 25-75 mL/hr) to maintain target serum sodium levels.
  • 23.4% Saline: 30 mL bolus via central line for refractory ICP spikes, administered slowly over 10-20 minutes.
  Target serum sodium is typically 145–155 mEq/L, but some protocols aim for higher in refractory cases, balancing ICP control with risks.
• Monitoring: Serum sodium and chloride frequently (e.g., q2-6h initially), serum osmolality, acid-base status (risk of hyperchloremic acidosis), fluid balance, renal function, and hemodynamics. ICP monitoring is crucial.

VI. Sedation Optimization

• Propofol:
  • Dosing: 0.5–4 mg/kg/h IV infusion, titrated to desired level of sedation (e.g., RASS -2 to -4).
  • Monitoring: Blood pressure (can cause hypotension), triglycerides (especially with prolonged or high-dose infusions), signs of Propofol Infusion Syndrome (PRIS).
• Dexmedetomidine:
  • Dosing: Loading dose (optional, often omitted to avoid hypotension/bradycardia) 0.5-1 µg/kg over 10 min, followed by maintenance infusion of 0.2–1.5 µg/kg/h.
  • Monitoring: Heart rate and blood pressure (risk of bradycardia and hypotension, especially with loading dose or higher infusion rates).
• Midazolam/Fentanyl:
  • Dosing: Titrate to Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS) target. Midazolam bolus 1-2 mg, infusion 0.02-0.1 mg/kg/hr. Fentanyl bolus 25-100 mcg, infusion 25-200 mcg/hr.
  • Monitoring: Respiratory rate and effort, level of sedation, signs of delirium.
  • Pitfalls: Risk of delirium, drug accumulation (especially midazolam in renal/hepatic failure or obesity), and respiratory depression.

VII. Special Populations & Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Considerations

• Renal Impairment:
  • Mannitol dosing should be reduced, and serum osmolality monitored very closely due to impaired excretion. Avoid if anuria or severe dehydration.
  • Dabigatran exposure is significantly prolonged in renal impairment, although idarucizumab remains effective for its reversal. Some Factor Xa inhibitors (e.g., rivaroxaban, edoxaban) also have significant renal clearance.
  • Accumulation of active metabolites of certain sedatives (e.g., midazolam) can occur.
• Hepatic Impairment:
  • Labetalol and propofol are primarily metabolized by the liver; dose reductions or cautious titration may be necessary.
  • Coagulopathy associated with liver disease can complicate hemostasis and anticoagulant reversal strategies. Vitamin K may be less effective if synthetic function is severely impaired.
• Drug Interactions:
  • Critically ill patients often receive polypharmacy. Review medications for potential interactions involving Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes (e.g., CYP3A4 inhibitors/inducers affecting metabolism of nicardipine, apixaban, rivaroxaban) and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) transporters (e.g., affecting dabigatran absorption/elimination).
  • Concurrent use of multiple CNS depressants can potentiate sedation and respiratory depression.

VIII. Monitoring & Adverse Effects

Comprehensive Monitoring is Key:

• Hemodynamics: Continuous intra-arterial blood pressure monitoring is ideal. Monitor heart rate and rhythm. ICP monitoring (e.g., via External Ventricular Drain – EVD) if indicated for elevated ICP or hydrocephalus. Calculate Cerebral Perfusion Pressure (CPP = MAP – ICP).
• Laboratory Parameters:
  • Frequent electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride, magnesium, calcium, phosphate).
  • Renal function (BUN, creatinine, GFR).
  • Hepatic function (ALT, AST, bilirubin, albumin).
  • Coagulation parameters (INR, aPTT, fibrinogen; anti-Xa levels if applicable and available).
  • Complete blood count (hemoglobin, platelets).
  • Serum osmolality if using osmotic agents.
• Neurologic Status: Frequent neurologic exams (Glasgow Coma Scale, pupillary response, motor function).

Common Adverse Events & Mitigation:

• Rebound Hypertension: Can occur after weaning antihypertensives. Requires gradual titration and potentially transitioning to oral agents.
• Thromboembolism: A risk after anticoagulant reversal or with pro-hemostatic agents. Implement DVT prophylaxis (mechanical, then pharmacological once bleeding is stable, typically 24-48h post-stabilization).
• Electrolyte Disturbances: Hypernatremia/hyponatremia, hypokalemia/hyperkalemia are common with diuretics, HTS, and large fluid shifts. Requires strict monitoring and careful replacement/correction.
• Acute Kidney Injury: Can result from hypoperfusion, nephrotoxic drugs, or high osmotic loads. Maintain euvolemia and monitor renal function closely.

IX. Multidisciplinary Coordination

Effective management of acute ICH necessitates a collaborative, multidisciplinary team approach.

• Neurosurgical Consultation Criteria: Early consultation is crucial. Indications for potential surgical intervention include:
  • Large hematoma volume (e.g., >30 mL, especially if supratentorial and GCS ≤8).
  • Evidence of neurological deterioration.
  • Brainstem compression or hydrocephalus.
  • Cerebellar hemorrhage >3 cm or causing brainstem compression/hydrocephalus.
  • Hematoma in an accessible location for evacuation.
• Timing of Intervention: The decision for early versus delayed hematoma evacuation or EVD placement depends on factors like patient’s Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), hematoma size and location, degree of mass effect, and presence of hydrocephalus.
• Team Communication:
  • Standardized handoff procedures (e.g., SBAR) between Emergency Department, ICU, Neurosurgery, and Neurology teams.
  • Shared protocols and order sets for BP management, anticoagulant reversal, and ICP control can improve consistency and timeliness of care.
  • Regular multidisciplinary rounds involving physicians (intensivists, neurosurgeons, neurologists), critical care pharmacists, nurses, and respiratory therapists are vital for ongoing assessment and adjustment of the treatment plan.

X. Case-Based Algorithm Example

Patient: 68-year-old male on rivaroxaban for atrial fibrillation presents with acute onset of right-sided weakness and slurred speech. Non-contrast CT head shows a 35 mL left basal ganglia ICH. Initial SBP is 188 mm Hg, GCS is 12 (E3V4M5).