1. Introduction

Drug-induced kidney diseases (DIKD) encompass acute and chronic renal injury from medications. In the ICU, high-risk exposures and comorbidities magnify incidence and severity.

A. Definitions and Scope

DIKD includes acute kidney injury (AKI) and progression to chronic kidney disease (CKD) due to pharmacologic agents. Direct nephrotoxicity, immune-mediated injury, and hemodynamic alterations are principal pathways. Key culprits include aminoglycosides, vancomycin, NSAIDs, cisplatin, and calcineurin inhibitors.

B. ICU-Specific Epidemiology and Incidence

ICU patients face a higher DIKD burden due to polypharmacy, organ dysfunction, and critical illness.

1. Global vs. ICU Prevalence

• DIKD in hospitalized adults: Approximately 14–26% develop drug-related AKI.
• ICU-specific incidence may exceed 30%.

2. High-Risk Agents and Cohorts

• Aminoglycosides and vancomycin: Nephrotoxicity rates up to 20–30%.
• Cisplatin: Chemotherapy-associated AKI; risk rises with cumulative dose.
• NSAIDs: Risk in hypovolemic or CKD patients; disrupt autoregulation.
• Calcineurin inhibitors: Cause acute vasoconstriction and chronic fibrosis in transplant patients.

3. Outcomes: Morbidity, Mortality, Cost

• DIKD prolongs ICU/hospital stay and increases Renal Replacement Therapy (RRT) use.
• Associated with up to 50% higher mortality in ICU.
• Economic impact: extended hospitalization, RRT, long-term CKD management.

2. Mechanisms of Nephrotoxicity

Three core mechanisms—tubular toxicity, interstitial nephritis, and hemodynamic alterations—underlie DIKD.

A. Tubular Toxicity

Proximal tubules accumulate toxins, leading to cell death.

• Proximal tubular injury: High metabolic activity and transport make these cells vulnerable.
• Aminoglycoside mitochondrial dysfunction: Accumulation via megalin-mediated uptake; disrupts oxidative phosphorylation. Generates Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and triggers apoptosis; risk potentiated by dose and co-nephrotoxins.
• Cisplatin DNA adduct formation: Forms DNA cross-links in tubular cells; arrests cell cycle and induces apoptosis. Oxidative stress and reduced perfusion amplify toxicity.

B. Acute Interstitial Nephritis

Immune-mediated hypersensitivity injures the interstitium and tubules.

• Hypersensitivity pathways: NSAIDs, penicillins, cephalosporins act as haptens, triggering T-cell response. Presents with fever, rash, eosinophilia (may be absent in ICU).
• Timeline and histology: Onset occurs days to weeks post-exposure. Biopsy reveals interstitial inflammation, edema, and eosinophil infiltration. Withdrawal of the offending drug is key; steroid use is debated.

C. Hemodynamic Alterations

Drugs can disrupt intrarenal blood flow, reducing Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).

• NSAID-mediated prostaglandin inhibition: Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition reduces afferent arteriolar vasodilation. In volume-depleted states, this leads to AKI.
• Calcineurin inhibitor vasoconstrictive effects: Increase endothelin and decrease nitric oxide. Causes afferent and efferent arteriolar constriction; chronic exposure leads to fibrosis.

3. Impact of Pre-Existing Chronic Diseases

Baseline comorbidities compound DIKD risk and worsen outcomes.

A. Chronic Kidney Disease

• Reduced nephron reserve amplifies vulnerability to additional insults.
• Altered drug clearance increases accumulation risk.

B. Diabetes Mellitus

• Microvascular damage and proteinuria synergize with tubular toxicity.
• Glomerular hyperfiltration accelerates injury.

C. Hypertension

• Vascular remodeling impairs autoregulation.
• Heightened sensitivity to hemodynamic nephrotoxins.

4. Social Determinants of Health

Socioeconomic and cultural factors influence DIKD risk, detection, and management.

A. Medication Access and Affordability

Limited access may lead to underdosing or use of Over-The-Counter (OTC) nephrotoxins (e.g., NSAIDs).

B. Health Literacy and Adherence

Low literacy can lead to misunderstanding of drug risks and monitoring instructions. Poor adherence can delay detection of toxicity.

C. Socioeconomic and Cultural Barriers

Language barriers, beliefs, and mistrust may hinder early care seeking. Marginalized groups often face higher DIKD incidence and severity.

5. Clinical Implications and Practice Gaps

Gaps in early detection and risk stratification limit DIKD prevention; pharmacists can lead targeted interventions.

A. Early Identification and Risk Stratification

Monitor serum creatinine, BUN/Cr ratio, and urine output. Emerging biomarkers (e.g., NGAL, KIM-1, cystatin C) show promise but are not yet routine. Editor’s Note: Need clinical integration guidelines for these biomarkers.

B. Integration of Social Risk Factors

Incorporate Socioeconomic Status (SES) and literacy assessments into care plans. Engage case management and social work to address barriers.

C. Pharmacist-Led Interventions

• Nephrotoxin stewardship: Prospective review of high-risk agents.
• Dosing adjustments: Renal function–based modifications.
• Electronic alerts and decision support: To prompt early action.

Key Takeaways:

• Proactive pharmacist involvement reduces DIKD incidence and severity.
• Multidisciplinary collaboration is essential for risk mitigation.