1. Clinical Relevance and Impact

Enterocutaneous (ECF) and enteroatmospheric fistulas (EAF) are devastating complications in critically ill surgical and trauma patients. They drive sepsis, malnutrition, prolonged ICU stays, and significant resource utilization.

Morbidity and Mortality

• EAF mortality can be as high as 40%.
• ECF mortality ranges from 10–30% in ICU cohorts.

Resource Implications

• Prolonged ICU and hospital length of stay.
• High‐cost parenteral nutrition.
• Complex wound care requirements.
• Need for repeated interventions.

Under-recognition

Non‐surgical ICUs often miss early signs such as skin excoriation or subtle fluid losses from wound sites.

Clinical Presentation

• Local: Erythema, excoriation, and maceration around a stoma or open abdominal wound.
• Systemic: Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS), sepsis, hemodynamic instability.
• Laboratory: Hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, metabolic acidosis, hypoalbuminemia.

2. Epidemiology

The incidence of ECF and EAF varies significantly depending on the type of surgical procedure, the context of trauma, and institutional practices. Awareness of high‐risk settings is crucial for guiding surveillance and early detection.

A. Surgical ICU Incidence

• Procedure‐specific rates: Colorectal surgery (2–5%), gastric or small‐bowel resections (1–3%), re‐exploration for anastomotic leak (10–15%).
• Iatrogenic causes: Approximately 75–85% of ECFs occur postoperatively.
• Prevention strategies: Preoperative nutritional repletion, meticulous surgical technique, and judicious use of drains can mitigate risk.

B. Trauma ICU Incidence

• Open abdomen techniques: Used for damage control surgery, these techniques are associated with an EAF incidence of 2–25%. This risk increases with prolonged duration of the open abdomen and repeated re‐explorations.
• Timing: Fistulas typically appear 7–14 days post‐injury or surgery, coinciding with the peak inflammatory response.

3. Pathophysiology

Fistula formation originates from a disruption of the intestinal barrier, which leads to the development of abnormal tracts, uncontrolled loss of effluent, bacterial translocation, and systemic inflammation.

A. Intestinal Barrier Disruption

• Triggers: Surgical injury (e.g., inadvertent enterotomy, anastomotic leak), ischemia (often related to vasopressor use or hypoperfusion states), inflammation (as seen in Inflammatory Bowel Disease or intra‐abdominal sepsis), and tissue damage from radiation or chemotherapy.
• Histopathology: The process typically begins with mucosal necrosis, followed by the formation of a tract. This tract may eventually become epithelialized, which can impede spontaneous closure.

B. Effluent Loss and Systemic Effects

• Fluid and electrolyte losses: High‐output fistulas (defined as >500 mL/day) can lead to significant hypovolemia, hyponatremia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and metabolic acidosis.
• Protein losses: Substantial protein loss through fistula effluent contributes to hypoalbuminemia and a negative nitrogen balance, impairing healing.
• Bacterial translocation: The compromised intestinal barrier allows bacteria and their toxins to enter the systemic circulation, increasing the risk of SIRS and sepsis.
• Catabolism: The combination of inflammation, infection, and malnutrition promotes a catabolic state, further worsening tissue healing and predisposing to multi‐organ dysfunction.

4. Chronic Disease Impact

Pre‐existing comorbidities can significantly weaken tissue integrity, alter the clinical presentation of fistulas, and worsen overall outcomes in affected patients.

• Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): The transmural inflammation characteristic of Crohn’s disease predisposes patients to both spontaneous fistula formation and postoperative fistulization.
• Radiation Enteritis/Chemotherapy: Chronic tissue fibrosis and impaired epithelial regeneration resulting from radiation therapy or chemotherapy increase the risk of spontaneous or iatrogenic fistulas.
• Diabetes Mellitus/Vascular Disease: These conditions are associated with microvascular compromise, impaired leukocyte function, and delayed wound healing, all of which can complicate fistula management.
• Chronic Kidney Disease/Malignancy: Patients with these conditions often exhibit a pro‐inflammatory state, malnutrition, and immunosuppression, creating a challenging environment for fistula healing.

5. Social Determinants of Health

Socioeconomic and system‐level factors critically modify the risk, recognition, and management of enterocutaneous and enteroatmospheric fistulas. These determinants can significantly impact patient outcomes.

• Medication access/adherence: Financial constraints or insurance barriers can undermine adherence to perioperative prophylactic regimens and essential postoperative care, including medications for output control or nutritional support.
• Health literacy: Poor understanding of medical conditions or treatment plans can lead to delays in reporting critical symptoms, such as new drainage, skin changes around a wound, or signs of infection.
• Socioeconomic status: Factors such as transportation difficulties, housing instability, and lack of adequate caregiver support can profoundly affect a patient’s ability to attend outpatient follow‐up appointments and manage complex wound care at home.
• System‐level barriers: Fragmented care coordination between different providers or healthcare settings, limited availability of home health resources, and inadequate transitions of care can compromise the continuity and effectiveness of fistula management.

6. Clinical Decision Points and Controversies

Effective management of ECF and EAF requires a careful balance between timely intervention and the risk of premature surgery, which can worsen outcomes. The integration of clinical, anatomical, metabolic, and social risk factors is key to guiding resource allocation and therapeutic strategies.

• Risk‐stratification tools: Existing scoring systems primarily focus on fistula output volume and anatomical characteristics. However, they often omit crucial factors like social determinants of health and the impact of comorbidities, limiting their comprehensive predictive value.
• Multidisciplinary teams: Early collaboration among specialists—including surgery, critical care, nutrition, wound care, pharmacy, and social work—is widely recognized to improve outcomes. However, the optimal structure and operational models for these teams remain undefined and may vary by institutional context.
• Timing of surgery: A significant point of debate involves the optimal timing for definitive surgical closure. Generally, a delayed approach (≥6 weeks) is favored to allow for sepsis control and nutritional optimization. However, early surgical intervention may be considered in select cases, such as those with complete bowel discontinuity or minimal contamination.
• Output reduction therapies: The routine use of somatostatin analogs (e.g., octreotide) to reduce fistula output remains a subject of controversy. Some advocate for their routine use in high-output fistulas, while others prefer a more selective or “rescue” approach when conservative measures fail.