1. Classification Schemes

A structured approach to sodium disorders is essential. Using tonicity, volume status, and acuity helps guide laboratory investigation and initial therapeutic decisions.

Hyponatremia by Tonicity

• Hypotonic (<275 mOsm/kg): This is the most common form, representing a state where water retention exceeds sodium retention, leading to cellular swelling.
• Isotonic (“Pseudohyponatremia”): Plasma osmolality is normal, but serum sodium appears artifactually low when measured by indirect ion-selective electrode (ISE) methods due to high levels of lipids or paraproteins.
• Hypertonic: A true dilutional hyponatremia caused by the presence of other effective osmoles (e.g., severe hyperglycemia, mannitol) that draw water into the extracellular space.

Hyponatremia by Volume Status (for Hypotonic Hyponatremia)

• Hypovolemic: Total body water and sodium are decreased, but sodium losses exceed water losses (e.g., diuretic use, GI losses). Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) levels rise, leading to water retention. Urine sodium may be low unless the cause is renal salt wasting.
• Euvolemic: Extracellular fluid (ECF) volume is normal, but there is an excess of free water (e.g., SIADH, hypothyroidism, glucocorticoid deficiency). Urine sodium is typically >30 mmol/L.
• Hypervolemic: Both total body water and sodium are increased, but water gain is greater. This occurs in states of ECF expansion with low effective circulating volume (e.g., heart failure, cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome), which drives ADH-mediated water retention.

Hypernatremia by Acuity and Volume Status

• Acuity: Acute hypernatremia (<48 hours) carries a high risk of neurologic complications from rapid cell shrinkage. Chronic hypernatremia (>48 hours) allows for brain cell adaptation via accumulation of idiogenic osmoles.
• Volume Categories:
  • Hypovolemic: Water loss exceeds salt loss (e.g., sweating, osmotic diuresis, loop diuretics).
  • Euvolemic: Pure water loss (e.g., diabetes insipidus).
  • Hypervolemic: Net salt gain, often iatrogenic (e.g., hypertonic saline or sodium bicarbonate infusions).

2. Initial Clinical Assessment

The history and physical exam are crucial for identifying risk factors, estimating fluid balance, and assessing neurologic status, which together guide the diagnostic pathway.

History

• Fluid Intake & Losses: Quantify volume and composition of oral/IV intake. Inquire about insensible losses (fever, burns, tachypnea) and access to water.
• Medications: Review for common culprits like thiazide/loop diuretics, SSRIs, carbamazepine, vasopressin analogs (desmopressin), and osmotic agents (mannitol).
• Comorbidities: Identify underlying heart failure, cirrhosis, renal disease, or endocrine disorders (adrenal, thyroid, pituitary).

Physical Exam

• Volume Status: Check for orthostatic hypotension (ΔSBP >20 mmHg or ΔHR >20 bpm) suggesting hypovolemia. Assess mucous membranes and skin turgor. Look for signs of hypervolemia like elevated JVP, pulmonary rales, and peripheral edema.
• Neurologic Status: Perform a focused neurologic exam, including Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), assessment of mentation (confusion, lethargy), and checking for seizure activity or focal deficits.

3. Serum and Plasma Studies

Accurate measurement of serum sodium and osmolality is the first step to differentiate true dysnatremias from laboratory artifacts and to classify the disorder.

Serum Sodium Measurement

• Indirect ISE: This common method dilutes the plasma sample before measurement. It can produce an artifactually low sodium reading (pseudohyponatremia) in cases of severe hyperlipidemia or hyperproteinemia.
• Direct ISE: This method uses an undiluted sample (often on a blood gas analyzer) and is the preferred test when pseudohyponatremia is suspected.

Plasma Osmolality

• Measured vs. Calculated: Osmolality can be directly measured by an osmometer (freezing point depression) or calculated. The standard formula is:
  Calculated Osmolality = (2 × Na) + (Glucose/18) + (BUN/2.8)
• Glucose Correction: In hyperglycemia, sodium is diluted. The Hillier formula corrects for this effect:
  Corrected Na = Measured Na + 1.6 × [(Glucose – 100) / 100]

4. Urine Analyses

Urine studies clarify the kidney’s role in the sodium and water imbalance, which is essential for differentiating etiologies like SIADH from primary polydipsia or renal from extrarenal salt losses.

5. Hormonal and Biomarker Evaluation

In cases of suspected diabetes insipidus (DI) or for complex diagnostic challenges, hormonal testing can provide a definitive diagnosis.

AVP vs. Copeptin Assays

• Arginine Vasopressin (AVP): Direct measurement is difficult due to the hormone’s instability in plasma and significant diurnal variation.
• Copeptin: A more stable C-terminal fragment co-secreted with AVP. It serves as a reliable surrogate marker for AVP release and has been shown to improve the diagnostic accuracy in differentiating DI subtypes.

Water Deprivation and Desmopressin Challenge

This classic test is used to diagnose DI:

1. Water Deprivation: The patient’s inability to concentrate urine (Urine Osm <300 mOsm/kg) despite rising plasma osmolality confirms DI.
2. Desmopressin Challenge: After deprivation, desmopressin (an AVP analog) is administered.
   • A significant increase in urine osmolality (>50%) indicates a response to AVP, confirming central DI.
   • A minimal or absent response (<10% increase) indicates AVP resistance, confirming nephrogenic DI.

6. Etiologic Algorithms

Applying systematic diagnostic criteria is essential to accurately identify the underlying cause and initiate appropriate therapy.

SIADH Diagnostic Criteria

All of the following criteria must be met for a diagnosis of Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone (SIADH):

1. True hypotonic hyponatremia (Plasma Osm < 275 mOsm/kg).
2. Clinical euvolemia (no signs of hypovolemia or hypervolemia).
3. Inappropriately concentrated urine (Urine Osm > 100 mOsm/kg).
4. Elevated urine sodium (>30 mmol/L) with normal dietary salt intake.
5. Exclusion of other causes, particularly adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, and advanced renal failure.

Diabetes Insipidus (DI)

• Diagnosis: Confirmed by a water deprivation test demonstrating an inability to concentrate urine.
• Subtype Differentiation: The desmopressin challenge separates central from nephrogenic DI based on the urine osmolality response.

Hypovolemic Hyponatremia

• Diagnosis: Based on clinical signs of volume depletion (orthostasis, tachycardia).
• Subtype Differentiation: Urine sodium and osmolality help separate renal (U_Na > 30) from extrarenal (U_Na < 30) causes of sodium and water loss.

7. Neurologic Risk Stratification

The severity of neurologic symptoms and the acuity of the dysnatremia dictate the urgency, goals, and speed of correction.

Symptom Grading

• Mild: Nausea, malaise, headache. Slower correction rates are generally acceptable.
• Moderate: Confusion, lethargy, disorientation. Requires more urgent intervention and closer monitoring.
• Severe: Seizures, coma (GCS ≤8), respiratory arrest. This is a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment with hypertonic saline.

Monitoring Frequency

• Active Correction: Check serum sodium every 2–4 hours.
• Stable/Post-Correction: Check serum sodium every 6–12 hours until stable.

Emergent Treatment Thresholds

• Severe Hyponatremia: For patients with seizures or coma, administer a 100 mL bolus of 3% hypertonic saline over 10 minutes. This can be repeated up to two more times if symptoms persist.
• Severe Acute Hypernatremia: In patients with hemodynamic instability, use hypotonic fluids (e.g., D5W, 0.45% NaCl) to lower serum sodium by approximately 1 mmol/L/hr initially.

8. Bedside Algorithms and Protocols

Stepwise flowcharts and standardized protocols can improve diagnostic accuracy, ensure adherence to safety metrics, and reduce adverse events like overcorrection.

Hyponatremia Evaluation Flowchart

Hypernatremia Evaluation Outline

1. Exclude pseudohypernatremia (rare, severe dehydration).
2. Determine acuity: acute (<48 h) vs. chronic (>48 h).
3. Assess volume status (hypovolemic, euvolemic, hypervolemic).
4. Calculate the free water deficit to guide fluid replacement.
5. Set an appropriate correction rate based on acuity.
6. Monitor serum sodium and neurologic status closely during correction.

Quality Metrics

Institutional protocols should track key quality metrics, including time to diagnosis, adherence to recommended correction rates, compliance with monitoring frequency, and incidence of overcorrection events.