1. Introduction to Supportive Care in Rhabdomyolysis

Severe rhabdomyolysis releases myoglobin and electrolytes, precipitating a cascade of complications including acute kidney injury (AKI), life-threatening arrhythmias, respiratory failure, and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). The primary goal of supportive care is to interrupt this cascade through early, aggressive interventions that prevent irreversible organ damage and create an optimal physiologic environment for recovery.

Pathophysiologic Drivers of Complications:

• Cellular Necrosis: Massive muscle cell breakdown releases myoglobin, potassium (K⁺), and phosphate (PO₄³⁻) into the circulation, overwhelming the body’s homeostatic mechanisms.
• Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): Myoglobin causes direct oxidative injury to renal tubules and combines with Tamm-Horsfall proteins to form intratubular casts, leading to obstruction and acute tubular necrosis.
• Fluid Shifts: Damaged muscle tissue sequesters large volumes of fluid from the intravascular space, leading to profound hypovolemia. Conversely, aggressive resuscitation can lead to iatrogenic fluid overload and compartment syndromes.

2. Respiratory Support: Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation may be required for patients who develop acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) from fluid overload, experience respiratory muscle fatigue, or have refractory metabolic acidosis.

Indications for Mechanical Ventilation:

• Hypoxemia (ARDS): PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio ≤200, or new bilateral infiltrates on imaging consistent with pulmonary edema.
• Respiratory Muscle Fatigue: Sustained respiratory rate >30 breaths/minute with a rising PaCO₂, indicating impending respiratory collapse.
• Refractory Acidosis: Severe metabolic acidosis (pH < 7.2) where mechanical ventilation can help compensate by controlling PaCO₂.

Ventilator and Sedation Strategy

A lung-protective strategy is paramount. This involves low tidal volumes (6 mL/kg of predicted body weight) and maintaining plateau pressures below 30 cm H₂O. Sedation and analgesia must be carefully selected and titrated, especially in the setting of AKI.

3. Hemodynamic Support

The goal of hemodynamic support is to maintain a mean arterial pressure (MAP) sufficient for end-organ perfusion (typically ≥65 mm Hg) without exacerbating fluid overload, pulmonary edema, or compartment syndrome.

Volume Status Assessment

Dynamic assessments of fluid responsiveness are superior to static measures like central venous pressure (CVP). Recommended techniques include:

• Passive leg raise (PLR) maneuver
• Pulse pressure variation (PPV) or stroke volume variation (SVV) in mechanically ventilated patients
• Bedside ultrasound to assess inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter and collapsibility

Fluid and Vasopressor Management

• Fluid Titration: Use isotonic crystalloids (e.g., Lactated Ringer’s or Normal Saline), titrating to a urine output of 1–3 mL/kg/h (not to exceed 300 mL/h). Reassess fluid status frequently, monitoring for signs of overload like peripheral edema or rising intra-abdominal pressure.
• Norepinephrine: The first-line vasopressor. Start at 0.05–0.1 µg/kg/min and titrate to maintain MAP ≥ 65 mm Hg. Monitor for tachyarrhythmias.
• Vasopressin: An adjunctive agent (0.03 U/min) for patients requiring high doses of norepinephrine. Monitor for signs of peripheral or digital ischemia.
• Phenylephrine: A pure α₁-agonist useful in patients with severe tachyarrhythmias on norepinephrine, but it may reduce cardiac output.

4. Prevention of ICU-Related Complications

Critically ill patients are at high risk for venous thromboembolism (VTE), stress-related mucosal bleeding, and nosocomial infections. Prophylactic measures are a cornerstone of supportive care.

Prophylaxis Strategies:

• VTE Prophylaxis:
  • Pharmacologic: Unfractionated heparin (UFH) 5,000 units SC every 8–12 hours or low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) like enoxaparin 40 mg SC daily.
  • Dose Adjustment: Enoxaparin requires dose reduction (e.g., to 30 mg daily) for CrCl < 30 mL/min. UFH is often preferred in severe AKI.
  • Mechanical: Intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) devices are used when anticoagulation is contraindicated.
• Stress Ulcer Prophylaxis (SUP):
  • Agents: Proton pump inhibitors (e.g., pantoprazole 40 mg IV daily) or H2-receptor antagonists (e.g., famotidine).
  • Risk vs. Benefit: The need for SUP should be reassessed daily, as acid suppression is associated with an increased risk of C. difficile infection and pneumonia.
• Infection Prevention:
  • Bundled Care: Strict adherence to central line and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) bundles is critical. This includes hand hygiene, chlorhexidine bathing, and daily sedation vacations.
  • Antibiotic Stewardship: Prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended. When infections are treated, therapy should be de-escalated promptly based on culture data.

5. Management of Iatrogenic Complications

The very therapies used to treat rhabdomyolysis can cause their own complications. Anticipating and managing fluid overload, electrolyte disturbances, and drug-induced nephrotoxicity is essential.

Common Iatrogenic Issues:

• Fluid Overload: If diuretics are needed, start with a bolus of furosemide (20–40 mg IV). If the response is poor, consider a continuous infusion (5–20 mg/h). Refractory fluid overload is a primary indication for renal replacement therapy (RRT).
• Electrolyte Disturbances:
  • Hyperkalemia: A medical emergency requiring a three-pronged approach (See Figure 1).
  • Hypocalcemia: Often occurs as calcium complexes with released phosphate. Treatment (calcium gluconate 1 g IV) is reserved for symptomatic patients (e.g., tetany, arrhythmias) to avoid later rebound hypercalcemia.
  • Hyperphosphatemia: Managed with phosphate binders like sevelamer (800 mg TID with meals). Avoid calcium-based binders if there is concurrent hypercalcemia.
• Nephrotoxin Avoidance: Systematically review the patient’s medication list to discontinue or adjust potential nephrotoxins, such as NSAIDs and certain antibiotics (e.g., aminoglycosides, vancomycin). If iodinated contrast is necessary, use the lowest possible dose with pre- and post-procedure hydration.

6. Multidisciplinary Goals-of-Care Conversations

In cases of severe rhabdomyolysis with multi-organ failure, it is crucial to initiate early and repeated goals-of-care discussions. This process of shared decision-making ensures that the intensity of life-sustaining treatments aligns with the patient’s values, preferences, and prognosis.

Triggers and Team Roles:

• When to Initiate: Discussions should be triggered by objective markers of poor prognosis (e.g., a high McMahon Score ≥ 6), refractory multi-organ failure, or before initiating highly invasive therapies like RRT.
• Multidisciplinary Team: The conversation should involve the intensivist, nephrologist, and palliative care specialists to discuss prognosis. The bedside nurse provides insight into the patient’s daily experience, and the pharmacist can advise on the feasibility and burden of the medication regimen.
• Communication Frameworks: Using structured communication tools like SBAR (Situation, Background, Assessment, Recommendation) or VALUE (Value family statements, Acknowledge emotions, Listen, Understand the patient as a person, Elicit questions) can facilitate a more effective and empathetic conversation. All decisions, including advanced directives and code status, must be clearly documented.

7. Monitoring and Quality Metrics

Standardized surveillance of key physiologic parameters, laboratory values, and adherence to safety protocols allows for timely therapy adjustments and drives quality improvement.

Key Monitoring Domains:

• Hemodynamics: Continuous monitoring of MAP and heart rate. Use of dynamic indices (PLR, PPV) to guide fluid therapy.
• Respiratory Status: Frequent checks of ventilator settings (tidal volume, PEEP, plateau pressure), sedation levels (Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale, RASS), and neuromuscular blockade (Train-of-Four, TOF).
• Fluid Balance: Strict intake and output charting, daily weights, and regular assessment for peripheral or pulmonary edema.
• Laboratory Values: Serial measurements of CK (to trend muscle injury), BUN/creatinine (for renal function), electrolytes (especially K⁺, Ca²⁺, PO₄³⁻), and arterial blood gas (ABG) every 4–6 hours initially.
• Prophylaxis and Safety Metrics: Tracking institutional rates of VTE, stress ulcer bleeding, VAP, and central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) to identify areas for improvement.